How international trade works-balance of trade-equality of exports and imports

Balance of trade is an often talked about subject by countries. The United States whines about a negative balance of trade with China, China whines about a negative balance of trade with South Korea, etc. etc. This was covered by Adam Smith in his Wealth of Nations [1]-but needs a new look in the present context.

Rule: Value of Annual Exports=Value of Annual Imports (E=I). The net balance of trade of a country with the rest of the world, i.e. all other countries taken together, is always zero.


Money and currencies (dollars, euros, yuans, etc.) are just a way to facilitate the exchange of goods (and services) between countries. The existence of currencies simplifies barter; but in the end, all trade is ultimately barter. What Chile imports annually from the world, is necessarily equal in value to what it exports annually (the major exports of Chile are copper, wines, fruits, and salmon. The major imports are construction materials, cars, electronic goods, machinery). Everything which Chile sends out in the form of exports, comes back in the form of imports. The reason to consider this over a year (annual) is because there may be a delay in the accounting of exports and imports and there may be a month to month variation where a surplus or deficit might run in a month because of not receiving the money in the same month, but over a longer period of time, say of one year (assuming payments in 30 to 90 days), the net exports should be equal to net imports. Chile is not sending its good anywhere for free; and neither is any country giving away their stuff to it for free (ignoring the small amounts of goods countries send out as charity/aid). The equality of exports and imports is a necessary condition for trade.

In practice, Chile first exports its goods to the outside world (more precisely, it is the companies in the Chilean exports sector who do this), gets US dollars (or yuans or euros) for it, and uses those dollars to buy goods to be imported to Chile (the companies who import goods into Chile do this part). Currencies serve as intermediaries to facilitate this underlying exchange.

The only reason to export goods (or services) outside your country is to buy objects or services produced by other countries, i.e. to import stuff (exceptions to this are covered later below).

It follows that if you export more, you import more. Similarly, if you export less, you have to import less. The value of what you export is the upper limit to how much you can import into a country.

Note that this is for a country with all the rest of the world taken together. However, Chile may run surpluses or deficits with any one country for a long period of time or forever, without this rule being violated. That's because countries are trading with each other, and surpluses with country A cancel out a deficit with country B.

Let us imagine a world with only three countries-Chile, USA and China. The numbers are just for example purposes, and are not real.


Chile exports 10 million dollars worth of wine to USA.
Chile exports 5 million dollars worth of Salmon to China.
Chile receives 15 million dollars worth of machinery and automobiles from China.

Therefore, against USA, Chile is always running a surplus in trade balance, because it is only exporting, but importing nothing from it.

But the surplus against USA must be exactly equal to the deficit against China, as you can see, to make sure that the net exports are the same in value as net imports for Chile.

There must be some form of trade between USA and China, where USA must be exporting something to China and running a surplus with China for exactly 10 million dollars.

An example might be

USA exports 500 million dollars of airplanes to China
USA imports 490 million dollars worth of computers from China

Taken all the data together, as shown in the figure above, makes every country's exports exactly equal to its imports.

Even if Chile is forever running a surplus against USA and a deficit against China, it all needs to add-up perfectly for it, where all exports come back as imports, directly or indirectly.

Note that in this example, USA always runs a surplus against China.

This example can be extended to 4, 5 and hundreds of countries, with similar results.

Hopefully you can see with this explanation that there's no fuss to be made about a country running a deficit with a particular country. It is just the nature of trade. For every surplus, there must be a deficit with a different country somewhere.

You can extend this concept to smaller divisions within a country (to States), to counties and ultimately to even to the individual level.

Therefore, Texas has a net trade balance of zero with the rest of the USA+other countries. What goes out of Texas, must come back into it, either from other States in the US or from other countries directly to Texas.

For an individual-what you produce, you must eventually exchange for what others produce. You eventually exchange what you produce with the what others produce.

My trade balance with Walmart is always negative-I only buy stuff from Walmart, but don't sell anything to it. Does that make me worse off? Not at all. If I was to profess equality of trade surplus and deficit with Walmart and each company separately, I would have to sell something to Apple, Walmart, Home Depot, and thousands of other companies I buy stuff from, individually making sure that I don't buy anything from these companies if I don't sell anything to them. What I do normally is sell my labor to some company, get dollars for it, and with these dollars, buy a load of stuff from Walmart, Apple, Home Depot, etc. More on this here.

Another way to look at this is by considering the whole planet earth. The net trade balance of the earth as a whole is zero-the earth doesn't export or import anything to anyone outside of earth. If you divide earth into just two countries-what goes out of one as exports is equal in value to what it receives in return from the other country as imports(unless one country is perpetually stiffing the other...). If you divide the second country into smaller countries, this result won't change. Thus the trade balance of a country with the rest of the world is exactly ZERO.

Corrections and adjustments to the rule

A couple of corrections need to be done to the rule, 1) when a country is loaned a large amount of money by foreign countries e.g Greece or Puerto Rico, whose governments were loaned large sums of money by foreign entities and 2) when a country has a good fraction of earnings coming from tourism e.g. Costa Rica. For these countries the annual exports will not be equal to the annual imports (exports will be smaller than imports), because a loan from a foreign entity or a tourist bringing in money are effectively an assignment to bring in additional imports. When an American tourist goes to Costa Rica and spends a few thousand dollars there, those dollars are in reality used by Costa Rica to buy imported goods. Same with loans to Greece by the German banks-the loans are in Euros, and Greeks will buy stuff using their Euros for their country, without having to export any goods. When the rule is skewed by foreign loans, as in the case of Greece and Puerto Rico, it is temporary, until the loan is paid off or the country defaults, as has happened with Greece and Puerto Rico. When it is by tourism, as for Costa Rica, Bahamas, Thailand, etc. the deviation from the rule, or the imbalance of exports and imports, is stable and can continue on forever.

Let's examine the case of a tourist country like Costa Rica in detail. The net imports of Costa Rica will be considerably more than the exports for Costa Rica.
The tourists who come to Costa Rica will sort of bring in their own consumption rights to the country-in the form of foreign currency bills, normally US dollars. It as as if these tourists saved up loads of things to be consumed in their home countries, but instead of consuming them there, they came to consume them in Costa Rica. This increases the importation of goods for Costa Rica, because these foreign tourists in Costa Rica have the right to bring goods from foreign countries, which they normally express by carrying US dollar bills.

If you have to troops to foreign lands-major countries like Russia, USA and France have a large number of troops outside their borders, they are indirectly fed and supplied by exports from the home country. What the French troops consume in Algeria needs to be exported out of France in some way.

Some adjustments must be made for credit and foreign currency accumulation-for Chile might export stuff and instead of exchanging them for other goods right away, maybe hold US dollar reserves, to buy something later in the US or in other countries. This is a small correction to the rule E=I, because dollar or foreign currency reserves are a small part of the net value of goods exported or imported-they are  like the liquid cash any businessman holds to facilitate transactions.

If you see recent data it seems that the US is running a constant trade deficit with the rest of the world for many years. On the other hand, China seems to be running a constant trade surplus with the rest of the world. This is a problem with incomplete or bad data- not everything which goes out of  or comes into a country shows in the exports and imports numbers at customs. For example, Chinese have bought a lot of real estate in Canada, and that purchase must have been financed by something exported out of China (the goods exported from China have been exchanged with a house in Vancouver, BC, Canada). Chinese tourists are the biggest tourist group to Thailand-and are known to purchase massive quantities of goods in that country. That purchasing power also comes from what China has exported from its shores in some way. As explained above, these activities of Chinese citizens will not show in the customs declarations or the standard export and import numbers.

The US stock market attracts capital from all over the world, and that will also not show up in the raw export and import numbers reported by customs. These investments have the same effect as a loan to a foreign country-they will make the exports figures be less than imports. This can continue on for many decades, as long as the US stock market keeps attracting foreign capital to it.

Similarly, exports and imports of intangible goods like software (software exports are a large part of exports for some countries like the US and India), and digital games, digital movies, etc. do not show up in the customs and import-export declarations. Corrections need to be made to our rule for this.

Some countries have a large amount of money coming into them from remittances by their expats abroad (e.g. Mexicans in the US). These will also not show up in customs import or export declarations, warranting another  correction to our rule.

Trying to encourage domestic industries by restricting imports has the opposite effect, it actually discourages domestic industry overall

If you agree that this basic equality of exports and imports holds, we can show that if you restrict imports in industry A to improve domestic industry in A, you must at some other place restrict the domestic industry B, which was producing B domestically, which was being exchanged for the imported product in industry A.

Before the restriction, imported industry A products must have been exchanged for something which went out of the country, products of industry B, for the trade equality to hold at that time. The moment you restrict imported industry A products, ostensibly to increase the production of industry A in the country, because you have restricted the total amount of industry A products now coming into the country from foreign sources, you must be exporting less of some domestic products of industry B.

A reduction in importation, by encouraging a domestic producer, automatically results in a reduction in exportation, and the industries which were exporting will be hurt indirectly.

A government must never restrict importation of industry A, and let the market take care of itself, because the skilled part of the country is the industry B, who by their great products and skillful exports were getting the imported products of industry A into the country.  The country has built a comparative advantage in B, that's why it is able to sell those products outside the country, and you don't want to handicap your strongest player to support your weaker players, which is what happens when you restrict imports in a particular industry.

Free trade (a trade without restrictions on imports, or exports for that matter) therefore automatically allocates capital in what the country does best.

You should not get worried at all of you see imported goods in your country, in fact, you should celebrate it, as I show here. You can be sure that a fellow countryman of yours must have exported some goods outside of your country for these goods to be imported in the first place.

To explain this important idea better, let me give you an example. The Indian government has a very misplaced "Make in India" drive to encourage domestic manufacturing. Apple is being encouraged to buy mobile phone components from domestic Indian companies, or if they want to import them, they shall be taxed heavily. What they do not realize is that the imported mobile phone components can be brought into India only by India exporting something out of the country. By forcing Apple to buy domestic components, they are hurting another (unknown) domestic industry whose products must have been exported to bring in the imported components. The US also has a "Make in USA" rhetoric, which is equally hurtful to the US because of the same reason.

What is true for capital is also true for jobs. By restrictions on imports, you push extra capital, and together with it, extra jobs into the hands of your weakest industries. The job gains in the domestic sector where imports are restricted is compensated by job losses in industries which are exporting.

Physics fans will realize that the Rule E=I is like the conservation of energy principle-energy can never be created or destroyed (except the modifications due to Einstein).

What does the actual trade data for countries look like?

With the disclaimer that trade data is very difficult to capture and what is declared sometimes in importing or exporting is not exactly the value of goods, let's see if what I have proposed above agrees with the data.

Import Export Data by country, top 20 countries by nominal GDP
All values are in billions of US Dollars, year 2016
Data source: World Bank trade data-see this link for details

Country Imports Exports  Ratio (Imports/Exports)
USA 2248 1450 1.55
China 1588 2098 0.76
Japan 607 645 0.94
Germany 1061 1341 0.79
UK 636 411 1.55
France 560 489 1.15
India 357 260 1.37
Italy 405 462 0.88
Brazil 137 185 0.74
Canada 403 389 1.04
South Korea 406 495 0.82
Russia 182 285 0.64
Australia 189 190 0.99
Spain 303 282 1.07
Mexico 387 374 1.03
Indonesia 136 145 0.94
Turkey 199 143 1.39
Netherlands 398 445 0.89
Switzerland 269 305 0.88
Saudi Arabia 164 201 0.82
Mean 1.01
Std. Dev.
0.26

The mean value of  the Import/Export ratio is (surprisingly) close to 1. However, the data has a large standard deviation of 0.26, with the range being between 0.64 to 1.55.

I found another data set for imports exports, and here is the table for imports and exports in 1970. It is adjusted for today's US Dollars (inflation corrections etc. stuff I don't agree with, but still, I will present the data as is, from this independent source, and way back in time, 1970. I chose that year to be several decades behind today to make it two independent snapshots in time).

Import Export Data by country, top 20 countries by value of imports, 1970
All values are in billions of US Dollars (year 1970, adjusted, see link for details of adjustments)
Data source: Barbieri, Katherine and Omar M. G. Omar Keshk. published in 2016. Correlates of War Project Trade Data Set Codebook, Version 4.0. Online: http://correlatesofwar.org

Country Imports  Exports  Ratio (Imports/Exports)
United States of America 42.70 43.22 0.99
Germany 29.96 34.23 0.88
United Kingdom 21.73 19.35 1.12
France 19.09 18.01 1.06
Japan 18.78 18.96 0.99
Canada 15.18 16.75 0.91
Italy 14.92 13.18 1.13
Netherlands 13.39 11.76 1.14
Russia 11.74 12.80 0.92
Belgium 10.85 11.03 0.98
Luxembourg 10.85 11.03 0.98
Sweden 7.01 6.78 1.03
Switzerland 6.49 5.16 1.26
Australia 4.99 4.78 1.04
German Democratic Republic 4.85 4.58 1.06
Spain 4.75 2.39 1.99
Denmark 4.40 3.35 1.31
Poland 3.97 3.55 1.12
Norway 3.70 2.38 1.55
Czechoslovakia 3.70 3.79 0.97
Mean 1.12
Std. Dev. 0.26

The mean value of  the Import/Export ratio is 1.12, close enough to 1. The data has a large standard deviation of 0.26, with the range being between 0.88 to 1.99.

I believe that the data sets of these two widely different years, 2016 and 1970, confirm reasonably well what I tried to show in the article, that the value of imports is approximately equal to the value of exports.

This article is very closely related to the article here about anti-dumping duties, restriction on imports because of bad trade balance numbers with a country, supporting domestic producers, etc.


How technological development causes economic development

We have come a long way from inventing stone tools to axes to electric hacksaws, but there are still people who believe that technological developments lead to loss of jobs, and are somehow bad for society.

Stone age tools: a high-tech engineer in 3000 B.C.

Or this cartoon by Marjorie Sarnat:


When we make a tool to simplify our job, whether it is a sharp stone to cut wood faster or an ax to remove trees faster, as our ancestors did, or an electric hacksaw which we use today to make chopping of trees even faster than an ax, we make our jobs simpler. The same holds for all inventions-software, robotics, computers, etc. We invent tools to make our jobs simpler, to produce more for the same man hours worked (increase productivity). Technological development is the root cause of economic development.

Jobs losses from invention of tools, machines, robots, AI, etc.

What happens to all the jobs which are eliminated by computerizing the paper ledgers, by employing all these machines in the fabrication of things, like the horse buggy makers who lost jobs to automobile makers or the drinks vending machines which robbed the jobs of people who sold the drinks manually? They are lost, but those workers find other jobs! Our predecessors were doing entirely different jobs than us-there was no NASA or Boeing or Mitsubishi in 1500 AD- clearly jobs shift, and that's the nature of things. But it is nothing to worry about. If a machine or robot takes away a job, the best job for the person who lost their job is making more machines of this kind, or to operate machines made by others (some machines like a mining truck, a bulldozer or an airplane need a lot of training to operate). This is how Japan does it-that country loves automation, machines, and instead of manual labor, the Japanese want to invent machines and robots for everything, which is the right approach to development. Women are even marrying robots now in Japan, and it is a perfectly legal union! The best job for humanity is to make and operate tools and machines (robots included; robots are simply machines which can move and have some degree of intelligence) which do your work faster, and this is exactly what technological development has been for thousands of years.

Modern day tools: a factory worker in 2000 A.D.

Whenever someone talks about loss of jobs because of new software, robots, tools and machines etc. you should tell them that the best jobs are to develop more software, robots, tools and machines. Repetitive and mundane tasks can be done by machines; and humans can dedicate themselves to producing more and more machines for more and more tasks, which is the hard part. When you see a bullet train or a plane you cannot not be marveled at the genius of humanity. If McDonald's can serve burgers using robots, it would be awesome-the people who work in McDonald's right now can find jobs building or fixing or maintaining these robots, instead of flipping hamburgers all day.

Semiconductors, software, robots internet, telephone, etc. are just an extension (over centuries) of stone age tools, chisels, axes, matchsticks, paper, watches, washing machines, etc...technological advancement is continuous, and we are constantly improving our productive powers by inventing new tools. We produce more for the same work  (same man hours worked) with these tools, which is what human progress is all about.

Primitive tribes have everyone doing something-mostly foraging for food. The more developed the society, the less the need to work. Progress is not about keeping everyone employed-it is about efficiently producing things. That's where tools, machines, robots, AI (Artificial Intelligence), etc. help-they help produce consumable goods more efficiently. Lamenting about the loss of jobs because of automation, robots, etc. is the same as lamenting about the progress which intelligent humans make in producing goods more efficiently or cheaply.

The more developed and rich a country, the more tools and machines it has. This does not lower wages; it actually increases wages. It is  the abundance of capital, these tools and machines, which makes people in developed countries produce far more (per hour) than an undeveloped or poor country, where everything is done manually and by hand. If you travel around the world and go from a developed to a poor country-you can see that everyone is working their 8 to 10 hours a day everywhere, but the real production of goods is much higher in a developed country because of tools, machines, etc. Witness giant cranes next to a Japanese highway being constructed; vs people literally with shovels next to a highway in Bolivia. The net work done is 10x or 100x more in Japan than in Bolivia for the same number of total man hours spent.

The warnings for loss of jobs because of technological progress are nothing more than luddites' arguments against modernization and technology.

Adam Smith may have underestimated the role of tools and technology in improving production of society

Smith in his Wealth of Nations may have underestimated the role of better tools and what we call technology today (he mentioned it as one of the three effects of division of labor, but did not think of it as the most important one. The other two were a) Workers getting more skilled when they do only one thing and b) the losing less time in changing jobs when they do several jobs at the  same time). After all, we know that humans have been making tools since the stone age (sharp tools made of stone, hence the name stone age) and division of labor alone without the invention of tools would probably not lead to the massive improvements in production powers of society. Even in his pins example, there are many tools which the workers use to produce so many more nails per day, and it is highly doubtful that they would be able to produce so many pins without all these tools and machines which they had. With good tools, good machines (machines are sophisticated tools) you simplify many tasks; and I am of the opinion that it is the tool makers, the inventors of tools, machines, technologies, etc. who have been driving humanity forward.

A bow and an arrow are tools invented by an extremely intelligent ancestor of ours. We are always fascinated by new tools and machines and highly respect the people who make them, and there is no reason for me to believe that this was not the case in 5000 BC. Organizing labor so that each person does one or two things and specializes in them (the skill of a capitalist or a businessperson),which is the foundation of division of labor, is a skill much easier to acquire than inventing new tools and machines.

The large number of  successful corporations today with tens of thousands of workers who dedicate themselves to making tools and machines (Caterpillar, Hitachi, Boeing, Intel, Daimler Benz, Lenovo, Google (software tools), etc.)  is a good example of the skill of tool making being a very important part of society. What we call high tech today is an extension of the same skills which produced the stone age tools, the bow and arrow, the hoe, etc. etc. And this will go on; the tools we use today will look very primitive in a few hundred years. Even the guns and the powerful cannons of a few hundred years ago look primitive and low-tech in comparison to the sophisticated war machines like tanks, supersonic jets and submarines of today. I do believe that humanity's advancement is continuous, and anything which is older than a few hundred years looks really primitive to us, at all times, not just today, but in the past and future (so if you are alive in 1300AD you look at tools from 1100AD as really primitive; and if you are going to be alive in 3200 AD you will think that tools from 3100 and before were really primitive). I cover this "the present is special fallacy" in another article here.

The massive improvement in technology is correlated well with human advancement-and I believe is also the most important cause of  human development and progress. Good tools, good machines simplify our lives very much; and while putting them together is the job of capitalists, we all, including the capital owners themselves, value a skilled mechanic or a technology oriented person quite highly.

We don't have to go back in time to see how our ancestors used tools and machinery. In many parts of the world there are still aboriginal tribes, and if you look at how they live, you get a glimpse of how our ancestors lived. Aboriginal tribes and poor countries have less automation and tools than rich countries; and this shows you that a society with a large number of machines is a developed, well-to-do society.

Some examples from present day

I will give some concrete examples of excellent machines of the present day and how much they exist in poor and rich countries.

Washing machines: Most people living in developed (rich) countries wash their clothes using washing machines. In poor countries, most people still (2018) use their hands to wash their clothes. Good machines with reliable after sales service, abundant water and continuous electricity are not available in poor countries (these are requirements for using a washing machine), and so even the wealthy in poor countries do not have washing machines-they outsource the washing to a maid who comes and washes their clothes for them. The maid who washes the clothes is better off working in a factory which produces washing machines (she will get paid more), than washing all these clothes by hand.

Parking meters: In most downtown areas of big cities in rich countries, you park your car and pay the money in the parking meter. In developing or poor countries, there is actually a human being who comes to charge you for your car. The parking meter has eliminated the job of this human being-but it is much nicer and efficient to park cars via a parking meter than involve a human, and this person is better off (paid better) by building and installing more of these parking meters, maintaining them, etc. than doing the charging manually.

Self-checkout counters in grocery stores: This is a rather new invention in developed countries-where people self-checkout their grocery store purchases than going through a cashier-using a bar-code scanner and paying via cash or credit card right at the machine. The job of a cashier is very stressful, repetitive and boring; it is much better if the cashiers were replaced with self-checkout counters and all these cashiers will now have better jobs (and better pay) in working to make more of these self-checkout counters, installing and maintaining them, etc. These type of self-checkout counters only exist in rich countries and even there rather occasionally, and it will be a long time before poor countries can afford them (because there are better uses of capital in poor countries-e.g. in making washing machines, parking meters, etc., which will most likely precede the self-checkout counters in each of these countries, i.e. the progression of development will follow the same trend approximately in all poor and developing countries in these three machines-people will most probably will  have washing machines and parking meters than self-checkout counters in grocery stores).

The best way for individuals and nations to become wealthy-increase investments in making tools and machines

Being wealthy at an individual level is having a large amount of material possessions or consumable goods (or the ability to do so, with you investments and what you keep in the bank). The wealth of a nation is a summation of the wealth of all its individuals, a concept well elucidated by Adam Smith.

When you go from a poor country to a rich country, you are astounded by how many goods people consume and how many material objects people possess in rich countries (the consumption shows they actually produce a large amount of these and other goods). When judging this one must bear in mind the higher quality of objects and consumable goods in rich country vs a rich country- for example, both countries might have an equal number of boats but the rich country will have some high quality, diesel or electric powered, large boats in a well kept marina, while a poor country will have some rugged wooden boats which are rowed by hand tied to some rocks, without a nice marina. The adage "better to reign in hell than to serve in heaven" is not true when it comes to you wanting to enjoy consumable goods and material objects, where even poor people in rich countries are better-off than the so called rich in poor countries.

What makes a country poor or rich?

I have proposed, without concrete proof (economics is not physics...) but backed by lots of anecdotal evidence mentioned in this article and other parts of this website, that it is the high degree of automation, the presence of tools and machines, which causes a country to become wealthy. By making these tools and machines, the net manual labor required to produce consumable goods and material objects goes down considerably; and more production is achieved for the same man-hours of work. This needs skills in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM education), which should be the focus of education systems worldwide in all countries. Focusing on these produces people with the right skills to eventually produce and operate machines and tools (some machines like an airplane or a mining truck need a lot of technical skills just to operate them). Government policy should eventually be designed to encourage the production of tools and machines in all walks of life.

Here's a friendly piece of advice to capital owners worldwide (I have run several small businesses myself, some successful, some not) -instead of employing workers, find machines and tools to do your jobs. You will get more done overall by employing machines, and your overall costs of production will almost always go down once you or someone else you employ learns to operate the tool/machine.  By encouraging the use of machines you may not encourage manual labor in your own business, but you will encourage manual labor employed in producing, maintaining and installing those machines. You can think of yourself as providing the operators for those machines, and most of your capital should be spent in purchasing machines, and not in paying workers to do the job manually. What machines to employ to simplify the workings of your business becomes your main skill, not managing people and goading them to work (and please don't believe in management experts, motivation and leadership gurus, etc. they add little value to you or your company). Invest your time and money in finding newer machines to employ in your business, train the few workers you have in operating these machines well, and see your business do well! All successful businessmen I have known do this to varied degrees. Automation makes a business successful; hiring a lot of human beings does not (an easy proof of this is that the most populous countries are not the richest-there is no correlation between being a rich country and the country's population).

And if you are a machine-maker business yourself, make your machines and tools better and better (possible by employing machines yourself, always remembering that those machines are also being made by someone), and you will find more and more sales for your business. This is especially true for consumer oriented machines, where the market is huge-witness the large amounts of money consumer electronic, computer and software, etc. company make.

An overall focus both by capital owners and workers, and government policy, on creating machines to simplifying tasks, whether it is simple machines like a hair-dryer or a complicated one like a bulldozer, is the cause of the richness of a nation. Japan seems to have mastered this well; the Japanese love to create machines for even the simplest of operations. It is this spirit which needs to be encouraged in all countries, and it is this which is the cause of nations becoming wealthy, where their citizens can enjoy the pleasure of consuming a large amount of goods, with a continuous production of them in the factories behind.

Inventions of new tools and machines are good for both workers and capital owners

Both capital owners and workers benefit by these improvements in the productive powers of labor, by the employment of new tools, technologies, etc.

Let me give you an example to clarify this: assume you have several wood cutting factories which were employing workers uses axes. Then the owners of these factories buy electric hacksaws. Assume electric hacksaws are 10 times more efficient and you need only 20 minutes to cut a tree, instead of 200 minutes using an ax.

Once an electric hacksaw is employed, the same work can be done in 1/10 of the time. You can employ the worker to do 10 times the work, because now he can chop 10x the number of trees for the same hours worked.  Since the output of each factory can go up by 10x by this operation of replacing axes with hacksaws, it increases the competition for labor-and the net result is that the worker can demand more wages per hour, because he can find jobs with other wood cutting facilities. Maybe the factory owners and the workers will settle for something in the middle- in the extra 9x chopped trees by this operation, maybe 6x will be kept by the factory owners, and the 3x chopped trees (or their wages in dollars) will be kept by the workers, whose real value of labor is increased by this operation.

All parties-capital owners and the workers, benefit by the introduction of electric hacksaws instead of axes for chopping wood. The same holds for all improvements in technology and tools which simplify our jobs-they benefit the workers as much as they benefit the capital owners.

Note that the workers needs to acquire a new skill-the operation of an electric hack saw in addition to using the ax. As we progress as humans, we operate newer and newer, more complex machines.

To employ someone to make machine X, you need capital-materials for making the machine X, fixed capital employed in erecting the factory and the machines and tools employed to make the new machine X, and the wages which employees must be paid before machine X comes out of the factory. Economics is about increasing this capital stock of society.